Othello Plot Points Essay

Othello’s Ensign, hates him cause he’s black, wants Cassio’s job, believes he would be better Cassio- Innocent Party, gets a job as Othello’s Lieutenant, gets into a fight and his stripped of rank, but goes to Desdemonia to try and win back Othello’s favour Roderigo- Loves Desdemonia, is persuaded by Iago to attempt to kill Cassio, is murdered by Iago to remain silent (d) Emilia- Married to Iago, gives iago the handkerchief that convinces Othello that Desdemonia and Cassio had a relationship (d) Plot Othello marries Desdemonia in secret. However Roderigo goes to her father and blows their cover. Othello is forced to defend himself from accusations of witchcraft. News of a Turkish invasion of Cyprus reaches Venice, and Othello, with Cassio his new Lieutenant, and Iago, his ensign, are deployed to Cyprus to defend against the Turkish fleet. Desdemonia is allowed to accompany Othello, and Emilia, Iago’s wife, accompanies her as her attendant. Th e enemy fleet is destroyed by a storm. Othello calls for a celebration, during which Iago gets Cassio drunk, who causes a fight. Othello strips him of his rank, and blames him for the disturbance caused by Iago. However, Iago tells Cassio to go to Desdemonia, and convince her to try to plead his case. Whilst Cassio does this, Iago goes to Othello and hints that Cassio and Desdemonia are having an affair. For the rest of the film, â€Å"Honest Iago† controls the actions of the characters, turning Othello against his wife and Roderigo against Cassio so that, at the end of the play, Roderigo attempts to murder Cassio, while Othello smothers his wife after accusing her of betraying him and having an affair with Cassio. Roderigo fails, and after he is identified as Cassio’s attacker Iago murders him, claiming to have been overcome with rage, but really silencing to cover his involvement. Othello then murders his wife, however Emilia walks in calls for help. As the truth comes out, Othello realises his wife was innocent. Iago murders his wife after she reveals what he has done. He is then captured and brought before Othello, who stabs him but does not murder him, saying he would prefer Iago live in pain for the rest of his life than die. Othello then kills himself out of guilt at what he has done. Iago is hauled off to be tortured, and Cassio is made Governer of Cyrpus. The end.

The Relationship Between Man and Woman in Araby

Araby James Joyce, an icon of the modernist era had many works that were moving away from the classical styles of literature put before him. Joyce is known for leading his characters towards some kind of personal insight and on the surface, Araby seems to be only about a boy learning about the truth of capitalism. As you dive deep in to his words and meaning however, it is apparent that Joyce’s message is not as black and white as it appears on the surface. This story is also about the relationship between men and women.It is about how women are capable of influencing a man’s actions/behaviors and why men feel as if they need to exert their â€Å"dominance† over women. Joyce purposely makes the protagonist a young boy who chases after an older girl. He does this to elevate the status of the girl and portray her as larger than the boy. He is basically saying early in the story that woman has some kind of superiority over man. The beginning of the story is innocent enough, the boy explains how he plays in the street with his best friend (Mangan) and hides from his uncle so he doesn’t have to go in.This is where the girl is introduced. Neither she nor the boy has a name hinting that they are representative of all men and women. The boy is absolutely infatuated with the girl and it is apparent in the paragraphs right after she is introduced. He watches her from afar, has a certain routine so that he passes her every morning, and even imagines victory due to his love as he walks through his marketplace. She is the focal point of all his thoughts and it is shown that he is helpless to her influence when he utters â€Å"O love!O love! † over and over in private. He is but a helpless romantic during this point of the story driven by his undeserving love for this girl. Their only conversation is a brief, but huge one and what she says and how she acts says all. She plays with her bracelet, signifying the importance of materialistic ite ms in her life and communicating that she would love something from Araby by saying how she would love to go but can’t. The boy bites the bait hard and is hooked immediately to be drug around by the idea of pleasing the girl.Her influence over him increases exponentially after this as he says that he cannot think of anything except her. He can’t sleep, can’t think, can’t read, can’t focus in class and is consumed with the hope that this magical bazaar would grant him the key to the girl’s heart. All these things are clear signs that the girl holds control over him because he has lost all motivation for anything besides pleasing her. The story stays like this, with him obsessing over her until he actually gets to the bazaar as it is closing and his hopes start to fade.Araby is supposed to be this enchanted place with wonderful people and remarkable, exotic items but the boy finds that there is nothing but commonplace junk that he could get fr om his own marketplace. On top of that, he is met by a very distasteful sales clerk who seems very uninterested in him. In most analyses, this is the point of the boy’s insight to the nature of capitalism and realizes that not everything is as pretty as it appears on the surface. This is a very important lesson but it is not the only change that occurs in the boy.The last line of the story is â€Å"Gazing up into the darkness I saw myself as a creature driven and derided by vanity; and my eyes burned with anguish and anger. † Joyce definitely did not use passive words to describe the boy’s hurt but chooses a powerful, emotionally charged set of words that paints a very precise, borderline frightening image. He describes the boy as a creature, as if he has lost his humanity and been stripped down to a raw, instinctual beast. A desperate, pissed off animal driven by his feeling of worthlessness with eyes burning from anger and a feeling of deep heartache.These are not words usually used to describe an epiphany about the nature of the world. These are words used to describe the feelings of losing something great, of getting your heart smashed, chewed up and spit out. These are words describing a feeling that this boy will never again want to feel. He realizes that he has opened himself up to be hurt and he was undeniably crushed by his inability to get something that would please the girl his heart yearns for. Joyce was a master of idioms and word choice. He was easily one of the great writers of his time and will always be recognized as such.He is known for writing about how stages in life affect a person as a whole and Araby is no different. Being a great writer of his time he is also a creation of the era he lived in. During his life men believed that they were superior to women, that woman were weak and that they needed a man to support them. It was believed that women were home to weak emotions and men only had time for strong ones makin g them better than women. To say that Joyce wrote a story in which he acknowledges that women have some kind upper hand on men may seem inept but he does a good job of answering why men behaved and felt this way.His reason is that men cannot cope with these â€Å"weak† emotions so they shut them out. The boy in the story â€Å"Araby† is met with his first heartbreak due to the fact that he can’t please the girl that he so desperately desires and immediately becomes this inhuman creature full of anguish. In a time where men are supposed to be the bread-winners; strong confident figures that controls their household, these feelings are unacceptable. It is why men must exhibit nothing but â€Å"strong† emotions and exude their dominance over women, for the fear of being emotionally shattered in the face of them.

3 Valuable Pieces of Information Harvards MCC Gives Adcoms

In 2015, Richard Weissbourg, a senior lecturer at Harvard, conducted a survey of 10,000 middle and high school students, from which he concluded that today’s college applicants were more preoccupied with their own happiness and achievement than the well-being of others. He postulated that this obsessive, tunnel-vision pursuit of personal achievement may ultimately result in more stressed out and unhappy individuals in the long run. To remedy this issue, Weissbourg proposed a new admissions protocol that seeks to change the criteria by which colleges evaluate their prospective applicants – specifically, he wanted colleges to give equal weight to an applicant’s character as well as their academic achievement. This protocol, titled Making Caring Common (MCC) , has been endorsed by representatives from over 80 of the top colleges in the nation. Previously, we’ve summarized the overarching goals of MCC and explored its tenets from various perspectives . Today, we’ll take a look at MCC from an admissions council’s point of view, and how the new admissions structure under MCC can offer these admissions officers new insights into an applicant’s background. With the way that many college applications are structured today, it’s often difficult to infer what an applicant is like in their day-to-day lives. Applications do ask for extracurriculars and essays , but there’s only so much those can do towards getting to know the kind of person the applicant is when they’re not trying to impress admissions councils. One of the goals that MCC has outlined for colleges is to create a more in-depth application that aims to obtain a more candid, three-dimensional, and dynamic image of a prospective applicant. More specifically, according to MCC’s official report, colleges should aim to assess applicants’ â€Å" daily awareness of and contributions to others .† In the report, Weissbourg and his colleagues propose that colleges should implement this directive by reshaping their essay questions — questions that too often focus only on the applicant’s academic repertoire. MCC suggests that colleges include more essay questions that ask applicants to â€Å" reflect broadly on how they contribute to others and on what values guide their lives ,† in a more moral and ethical sense. The report also asks counselors, teachers, and recommenders to reflect more on their everyday interactions with a prospective applicant and to justify their positive claims about an applicant based on observable, consistent actions. Future recommendations might also have a selection section where recommenders are instructed to pick a preset number of adjectives that describe an applicant; some adjectives will be academically positive, while others are ethically positive. Whether or not ethically positive terms are chosen for an applicant will indicate to admissions councils the relative value of ethics to that applicant. All these techniques combined serve to build a facet of a college application expressly dedicated to evaluating not just how moral an applicant is, but also how consistent the applicant is about living out those values. Perseverance and a Willingness to Learn One of the keywords emphasized in MCC’s report is the word â€Å"sustained,† and for good reason too — colleges have witnessed a trend of applicants engaging in extracurriculars for short periods of time to pad out their resume and then giving them up. The report also points out that partaking in an excessive number of extracurriculars can also cause undue stress and emotional pressure in applicants, and that oftentimes, applicants from less privileged backgrounds are at a disadvantage in the admissions process because their schools don’t offer the wide range of extracurriculars available at wealthier schools. To address all three of these issues, MCC stresses an emphasis on the quality of extracurriculars over the quantity — namely, they recommend that an applicant should only need to list two or three extracurriculars on their application, but that these extracurriculars must be extracurriculars that the applicant has clearly dedicated himself or herself to. When addressing the issue of community service extracurriculars, for example, the MCC report states that a high-quality community service experience should be â€Å" consistent, well-structured and sustained, and provid opportunity for reflection both individually and with peers and adults. † The reasoning behind this is that MCC wishes to see applicants who have been intrinsically transformed by their extracurriculars, either in the way they think or the way they feel about the world. They hope that the extracurriculars that an applicant chooses will have â€Å"engaged students’ concerns and intellect and developed in them important awareness of and commitment to others and the public good.† And in order to feasibly reach such a profound realization within an extracurricular, the report presumes that applicants must have dedicated a significant amount of time and energy to it. This shift from quantity and ostensible value or competitiveness to intrinsic personal development in the evaluation of extracurriculars rewards students who have truly dedicated themselves to the same causes for significant portions of their lives — it portrays these applicants as people with a genuine interest that they are willing to commit to, and who are constantly reevaluating their worldview and bettering themselves through their experiences. Colleges typically encourage a diverse campus with students from various racial and cultural backgrounds, socioeconomic origins, political orientations, and the like. However, the MCC report duly notes that many diversity initiatives that college applicants partake in are surface-level and tokenistic, and do not help in actually facilitating exchange between students of different backgrounds. In order to encourage deeper understandings of diversity, the report suggests that colleges ask about diversity in terms of the changes that interactions with diversity have engendered in an applicant. After interacting with people of diverse backgrounds, have applicants become more understanding? Have they realized a better way to do things from people of a different background? Have they become an advocate or an ally? Most importantly, MCC proposes that applicants who do take part in diversity initiatives do so on equal footing with the demographic that they are interacting with — from the report itself, it says that an applicant should not be â€Å"doing for† people with different backgrounds, and that he or she should instead â€Å"do with,† interacting with people of different backgrounds on their terms and integrating into their daily lives instead of the other way around. These new evaluations of diversity participation discourages the type of superficial and patronizing understanding of different backgrounds that comes from when an applicant simply glosses over the traits of people from a different background on the applicant’s own terms. Instead, it forces applicants to immerse themselves in a different background and experience the world from the perspective of that different background, and rewards those who are able to accept people apart from themselves as equals. Though MCC preserves much of the academic evaluation structure of the current application system (with a few exceptions), the provisions it proposes for a remodeling of the current system are geared towards character building and self-development — two traits that the report states have been neglected in the race for acceptance into top colleges. Once parents, students, teachers, and admissions officers re-focus their efforts towards developing better people instead of just better students, Weissbourg suggests, we’ll begin seeing a rise in happier, more fulfilled, and more complete individuals.

Consumer behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

Consumer behaviour - Essay Example The essay below discusses the role of marketing in enhancing consumer motivation through application of consumer behaviour models. Marketing links the societal product requirements to the economic responsive strategies. Marketing can be viewed as an organisational function that creates, delivers and communicates value to consumers while managing customer relationships in strategies that are beneficial to the organisation. Most marketing strategies are geared towards understanding the consumer behaviour and providing superior customer value. Consumer behaviour is defined as the buying culture of consumers. Consumer behaviour is affected both intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as perception, the self, motivation, learning and memory, attitudes, group influence and culture. According to Solomon et al (2006: 6), consumer behaviour involves focus on the processes involved when individuals choose, buy, use and dispose products, or services to satisfy their needs or desires. Marketing is a chain of various market components that are interconnected. The components supplements and overlap with each other. Effective marketing entails taking into account the consumer opinion and behaviour that enables manufacturing of goods that suits their needs. Marketers should be able to discern what prompts a consumer to act and what stops them from purchasing products. The aim of studying consumer behaviour is to understand the buyer and make a customer out of them. The study focuses on the processes used to choose, secure, apply and dispose products, experiences, services and ideas in a bid to satisfy consumer needs. The problem remains pertinent even with the modern efforts geared towards improving the motivating aspect of marketing strategies. The buyer is a highly complex entity in the discussions involving consumer behaviour and motivation; their needs are innumerable. Some of the needs are latent, manifest or highly dominant. The marketer should understand that consumers hav e their own ideas on the mechanisms applied in realising needs and desires. Understanding the need-structure and priorities of the buyer will require the marketer to develop a market relationship with the consumer. Consumer behaviour is applied in the formulation of the marketing strategy, public regulations and social marketing. Focus on consumer behaviour leads to the establishment of improved marketing strategies aimed at improving the worth of marketing campaigns and attracting new consumers (Biernat and Sesko, 2012: 138-143). Marketing managers should take into account the psychological aspects of the consumers in identifying the most perfect time for conducting marketing operations in relation to their perceptions on time. Few consumers accept products when newly introduced in the market but they later embrace their use as they penetrate deeper into the markets. This implies that organisations should be well financed to ensure that their products stay afloat when newly introdu ced in the markets. Focus on few numbers of consumers enables them to understand consumer behaviour which they can harness in influencing high numbers of consumers. Marketing strategies such as social marketing does not only aim at promoting products but also enables the companies become acquainted with consumer behavioural peculiarities and apply them in production. Motivation compels individuals to action. It can be defined as the stimulation of any desire or emotion that occurs in response to a consumer’

Will more gun law lead to less gun violence Research Paper

Will more gun law lead to less gun violence - Research Paper Example A lower percentage of people consider protecting the legal right to own a gun as opposed to protecting people from gun associated violence. Anti-gun-control opinions are that if more states amended compulsory laws for criminals who commit crimes using guns, violence will be unaffected since such laws have been in existence but have failed to cut down crime. More laws on handguns have not had any significant effect on murder levels due to the high rate of handguns already in circulation before the laws took effect. Laws that seek to reduce guns in criminals hands might fail to reduce violence because active criminals can steal them or they can buy from the black market (Lott 34). As difficult as it may be to accept, the truth is that it is not very possible to stop a shooter no matter the number of guns present. The only way to stop or lessen gun violence is to prevent the offender from acquiring the guns first. It is not convincing to argue that guns save life, as some people will say, since with 300 million guns already circulating, no solution has been evidenced but laws discouraging acquisition of more guns may be a logical

The Most Pressing Ethical Issue in World Cinemas is in Every Aspect Essay

The Most Pressing Ethical Issue in World Cinemas is in Every Aspect that of Representation - Essay Example According to Galt and Schnoozer this specificity although unique in its nature does create room for destabilization in the global art cinema. The term global as used by Galt and Schnoozer does represent all the aspects represented by the global art cinema. These include the geopolitical aspect that features as part of the global art cinema representation. In the 21st century, the art films have the task of presenting unique yet universally legible works of art. Galt and schnoozer argue that the art cinema does demand the consideration of all cultures and the ability seeing ourselves through foreign eyes. This ideology of global art cinema does present the lack of unification. The global art cinema does make a massive contribution to the cinema world in its effort to globalise the art of film. It achieves this by embracing the different cultural perspective and trying to create a relationship in every aspect of life. Glan and schnoozer look at the films from different directors who ha ve come up with the ability to create beautiful films that are an inspiration to their viewers. What this films present is political liberation that is an aspect that the global art cinema focuses on in the aim of promoting contemporary films. An example of the promotion of culture through the field of art cinema is the Spanish cinema. This cinema looks at the popular culture that the Spaniards experienced during the era of Marxism. We focus on dictatorship. The Europe cinema for some time has a link to the art cinema in contrast to the Hollywood cinema, which is popular. For some time, the Hollywood cinema took the principal focus for its international prominence this is in contrast to the European cinema that took the focus of art cinema. This paved room for the study of the other cinemas like the Mexican cinemas, the Spanish cinemas the U.K cinemas also the Australian cinemas the act scholars saw the need to study their unique, artistic quality. Let us consider the movie Motor Cy cle Diaries directed by Walter Salles, the movie is an adaptation of the journal written by Guevara. The movie does use Mexican actors to play the leading roles. Gael Garcia Bernal plays the role of Che. Ernesto Guevara Salles made an ideal choice to use this actor to play Guevera's part. He is a delightful character as he manages to pull out an asthma attack scene on the screen, thus making this is one of the moments that one catches his breath in the film. On the other hand, Rodrigo De La Serna plays the part of Alberto Granado. He plays the loyal travelling companion he represents the casually amoral he manages to bring out his friends fierce integrity. The movie is also a representation of the country’s state dating between the periods 1951 to 1952. Guevera is a final year student in medical school, and his friend is a biochemist finalist. The movie is a representation of a Latin America journey it represents a trip undertaken by a 23 year old across South America. The tw o young friend who undertake the trip across South America happen to be exposed to the plight of the poor along the way. They experience the vulnerability and the suffering of the poor in this country. This exposure forms the basis of Che Guevara interest in being an activist in his country and thus he shows his determination in bidding farewell to the leper colony

Same sex marriage (Argumentative essay) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Same sex marriage (Argumentative ) - Essay Example This understanding has led to the initiation of many controversies and debates. The issue of same sex marriage accounts for one such matter which has sparked many arguments with regard to its legality. The issue surfaced during the last half of the twentieth century when same sex couples demanded the recognition of their relationship. The same sex couples argue and insist on the legality and provision of permission for same sex marriage. On the other hand, this stand is opposed by many religious, social and ethical groups who argue that same sex marriages are against the law of nature and legality of these marriages will destruct the normal structure of the society. These disagreements and debates have led to the questioning with regard to the fact that whether same sex marriages should be allowed or should they be marked as being illegal. The number of homosexuals in the United States has been increasing and this was clearly concluded with the assistance of the statistics provided by surveys conducted by the William’s Institute. It was highlighted that the number of same sex couples increased from 594,391 to 776,943 from the year 2001 to 2005 (Romero et al 2007). Owing to these increases in the number of homosexuals in the country, there have been many legal fights which have been carried out by these groups. Following the year 1990, many uprisings and legal proceedings were initiated by gays for the provision of legality for their marriages. The first major case was held in the Supreme Court of Hawaii in 1993 which invalidated the decision of a lower court from permitting three homosexual couples from marrying. This legal hearing was followed by other proceedings in the State of Alaska in 1998 and Vermont in 1999. A definitive breakthrough for the same sex couples was achieved in the year 2000 when their marr iages were legally allowed in the state of Vermont. Therefore, Vermont became the first State in the

Fundamental of finance Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Fundamental of finance - Article Example This portfolio is best suited for Top Choice as they are high risk takers. The investment will yield an average return of (31.6% of ' 2,000,000) ' 632,000 with a standard deviation of (7.14% of ' 2,000,000) ' 142,800. This indicates that the return will be in the range of (' 632,000 - ' 142,800) and (' 632,000 + ' 142,800), i.e., ' 489,200 and ' 774,800 respectively. A company can be financed by a number of different modes. The type of capital financing that has been chosen for the company is referred to as the capital structure of the company. A company can be financed using debentures, equity shares, long term loans, etc. These options however are based on the nature of risk the investors are willing to take. The following sections will discuss the various financing options that are available for investors to finance their companies and the factors that affect the choice have also been discussed. a) Equity Financing: This is the most common mode of financing used by companies. Here companies raise monies for the business by selling stocks of the company. These can either be preferred or common stock and can be sold both to individuals as well as investors. This is also referred to as the share capital of the company. These stocks provide the buyers with an ownership in the company. This is perceived to be 'easy money' as it does not involve any debt. Here the company does not require repaying the amount to the investors, as long as the business makes profits. Equity financing is best suited for people who are risk takers (J Ogilvie & B Koch 2002). b) Debt Financing: This type of financing is when a company borrows money from other sources like banks, etc, under an agreement to pay back within a fixed amount of time. Here the lenders do not get any ownership of the business and the relationship remains active until all the monies are paid back. This can be of two main types a) short term financing, where loans taken are for a period less than one year. These are mostly taken by people who are willing to take risks. b) Long term financing is when loans are taken for period higher

INVESTIGATING AUSTRALIAN RADIOGRAPHERS' PERCEPTIONS ON ADVANCED Research Paper

INVESTIGATING AUSTRALIAN RADIOGRAPHERS' PERCEPTIONS ON ADVANCED PRACTICE WITH EMPHASIS ON IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND INVOLVED TR - Research Paper Example With advanced radiographic practice, radiographers are allowed not only to acquire medical images but to perform skills formerly restricted to other specialists, such as image interpretation (Hardy and others 2008, e16) and clinical assessment. It was said that the main benefit of this system is to free physicians and other highly-trained specialists to concentrate on their essential function – that is, to diagnose and to treat (Australian Institute of Radiography 2009). United Kingdom leads the development in advanced radiographic practice (Cowling 2008), with the radiographer’s roles changing towards diagnosis and even radiation therapy over the last twenty years (Australian Institute of Radiography 2009). However, several countries still have not fully accepted advanced practice. In Australia, while there have been attempts to implement role expansion, advanced practice has not been officially established (Burrow and others 2006). This is despite the fact that the co untry has shortage of radiologists attributed to reduced working hours and small staff growth rate increase (Smith and Baird 2008). Several reasons were identified for this uncertainty in Australia including resistance from the medical workforce and radiographer education, thereby affecting radiographer’s perception towards advanced practice. Given the situation, it is necessary to explore the aspects of advanced practice in Australia since resistance to it may lead to reduced standards and recognition of the profession of the radiographers (Cowling 2008). United Kingdom vs. Australia: A Comparison The demand for radiologists due to the increasing population has been regarded as the major factor that drives the need for advanced radiographic practice worldwide. Between United Kingdom and Australia, the number of patients per radiologist is greater for the latter (Smith and Baird 2007, 629). However, when it comes to the number of examinations per year, reports show that Unite d Kingdom has more compared to Australia (Smith and Baird 2007, 629). While imbalance between supply and demand exists in these two countries, each adapted a different approach in carrying out advanced practice. According to Cowling (2008, e29), advanced radiographic practice worldwide can be classified at several levels. United Kingdom belongs to the first level which is characterized by the presence of driving forces such as government intervention, research, graduate programs and professional organizations that lead to implementation of advanced practice in the field (Cowling 2008, e29). On the other hand, Australia only belongs to the second level, in which despite the presence of the same driving forces, implementation has not been carried out to remarkable levels (Cowling 2008, e29). In United Kingdom, government policy has been directed towards enhancing the National Health Service; thus, contributing to the advancement of radiographers’ roles and practice (Australian Institute of Radiography 2009, 28). In fact, the government has increased funds for the National Health Service (Smith and Baird

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay Example for Free

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay For decades economic theories have relied heavily on the effectiveness of material incentives (Fehr Gachter, 2001). According to the traditional exchange theory all people are exclusively motivated by their own material self-interest. It predicts that the introduction of a penalty will reduce the occurrence of the behavior that is subject to the fine. On the other hand it states that introducing a material incentive will lead to an increase of the behavior related to the bonus. Based on economic theory, incentives have become increasingly popular and are used to increase certain behaviors in various fields including environmental policy (Andersen Sprenger, 2000; Barde Smith, 1997; Baumol Oates, 1988; Kahn, 1995; all cited in ThOgersen, 2003), household surveys (Singer, 2002) and education policy (Fryer, 2011). On the other side, penalties have been used to reduce free-riding (Feldman, Papadimitriou, Chuang, Stoica, 2006), and crimes (Akerlof Dickens, 1982). There is much evidence that supports the basic premise of economics that incentives are effective (Gibbons, 1997; Prendergast, 1999; Lazear, 2000; all cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). However, a large body of literature in psychology has shown that explicit incentives lead to decreased motivation and reduced performance in the long run (Deci Ryan, 1985; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). Titmuss (1970, as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004) was the first who claimed that people might adopt a ‘market mentality’ when they are exposed to explicit economic incentives. He found that paying blood donors for donating blood could actually reduce supply. In the beginning there was little hard evidence that social preferences affected individual behavior, but empirical and theoretical advances over the past decades provide the basis for more support. For example, Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a) found that introducing a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers led to a significant increase in late-coming. There was no reduction in late-coming after the fine was removed. Also Fryer (2011) didn’t find evidence that providing financial incentives to teachers to increase student performance had any effect. Partly because of these findings, terms as trust, reciprocity, gift exchange and fairness have appeared in the empirical study and modeling of principal-agent relationships (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). This highlights the importance of the influence that social preferences have on incentives. Based on the contradictions mentioned above I conclude that a more thorough analysis is needed in order to understand the influence of incentives on behavior. I’ll focus on the interplay between incentives and social preferences and how this affects behavior. In this paper I will review several mechanisms that can explain how incentives can be less effective than economic theories predict and how they can even have counterproductive effects. Furthermore I will indicate the implications of the (non-)effectiveness of incentives for economic policy. Overview of past research According to the definition of Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012), social preferences refer to â€Å"motives such as altruism, reciprocity, intrinsic pleasure in helping others, inequity aversion, ethical commitments and other motives that induce people to help others more than would an own-material-payoff maximizing individual† (p. 4). Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) have indicated the most important types of preferences that have been uncovered by the literature. I will shortly review them below. The first important type of social preference is the preference for reciprocal fairness or reciprocity. An individual is reciprocal when he responds kindly to actions that are perceived as kind, and when he responds hostile to actions that are perceived as hostile. Whether some action is perceived as hostile of kind depends on the unfairness or fairness of the intention and on the consequences that are associated with the action. A second social preference type is inequity aversion. According to Fehr and Schmidt (1999; as cited in Fehr Fischbacher, 2002) â€Å"inequity averse persons want to achieve an equitable distribution of material resources† (p. C3). Inequity averse persons show altruistic behavior if the other persons’ payoffs are below an equitable level. However, if the other persons’ payoffs are exceeding the equitable level an inequity averse person want to decrease the other persons’ payoffs. There are a lot of similarities in the behavior of reciprocal and inequity averse individuals, since both concepts depend in some way on the perception of fairness. Pure altruism is the third type of social preference, which is very different from the former two. Altruism can be seen as an unconditional form of kindness (Fehr Fischbacher, 2002), as an altruistic person would never take an action that decreases another person’s payoff. The problem with pure altruism is that it cannot explain conditional cooperation, that is, people want to increase their voluntary cooperation in response to cooperation of others. The last social preference type that Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) mentioned is envious or spiteful preferences. An envious or spiteful person always values the payoff of other agents negatively. Therefore the envious person is willing to decrease the other agent’s payoff even if it brings along a personal cost to himself. This happens irrespective of fair or unfair behavior of the other agent and irrespective of the pay-off distribution (Fehr Fischbacher, 2002). However, spitefulness can’t explain why it is that the same individuals sometimes are willing to help others at a personal cost, while sometimes they harm other people. Over the past decades, many studies have confirmed that a significant fraction of individuals engage in reciprocal or altruistic behaviors (Buraschi Cornelli, 2002; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004; Fehr Gachter, 2000). Thus, many individuals do not only care about the material resources allocated to them, but also care about material resources allocated to other relevant agents. To give an overview of the incentive effects on preferences, two distinctions are made: the nature and the causes of incentives (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Concerning the nature of incentives, people often respond to the mere presence of incentives, rather than to their extent (Gneezy, 2003; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). However, the extent of an incentive may also play a role. Therefore the effects of incentives on social preferences can be either categorical or marginal or a combination of the two. Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012) also make a distinction between 2 causes of incentive effects on preferences. First, incentives can affect the environment in which preferences are learned. When this happens, the preferences are referred to as endogenous preferences. Second, the extent or presence of incentives affect the behavioral salience of an individual’s social preferences. When incentives constitute different states, we refer to social preferences as state-dependent preferences. There are three mechanisms that make social preferences state-dependent. First, by implementing an incentive, the principal discloses information about his intentions, about his beliefs about the target of the incentives and about the targeted behavior. This information might affect the agent’s social preferences which in turn affect the agent’s behavior. Second, incentives provide situational cues for appropriate behavior. Finally, incentives may lead to a crowding out of intrinsic motivations. The crowding-out effect is based on the intuition that the presence of punishments or rewards spoils the reputational value of good deeds. This creates doubt within the individual about the extent to which he performed because of the incentives rather than for himself. This phenomenon is also referred to as the ‘overjustification effect’ (Lepper, Greene, Nisbett, 1973; as cited in Benabou Tirole, 2004). In the next part of this paper I’ll give experimental evidence for both endogenous preferences and for all 3 mechanisms that make preferences incentive-state-dependent. Furthermore, I’ll give examples of experiments where crowding in has been found and explain the underlying mechanisms. 1. Endogenous preferences: incentives alter how new preferences are learned Preferences are endogenous if someone’s experiences lead to durable changes in motivations and eventually result in a change in behavior in certain situations (Bowles, 2008). In most cases, experiments have a few hours duration and therefore it’s unlikely to uncover the mechanisms that are involved in the process of durable change of preferences. Although it’s hard to explore the causal mechanisms at work, there exist some experiments that do show a durable learning effect (Irlenbausch Sliwka, 2005; Falkinger, Fehr, Gachter, Winter-Ebmer, 2000; all cited in Bowles, 2008). Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a), for example, examined if the introduction of a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers would lead to reduction of late-coming. However, the amount of late-coming parents didn’t decrease, but increased significantly. Thus incentives led to more self-interested behavior. More importantly, after the fine was removed no reduction in late-coming parents was shown, meaning that there was some durable learning effect going on. 2. State-dependent preferences: incentives provide information about the principal When an incentive is imposed on an agent, he may infer information about the principal who designed the incentive. He may, for example, infer information about the principal’s beliefs regarding the agent, and about the nature of the task that has to be done (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). This information can lead to a negative response to fines that are imposed by principals. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) designed a sequentially played social dilemma experiment and examined how sanctions intended to prevent cheating affect human altruism. Participants in the role of ‘investor’ could transfer a certain amount of money to another player, the ‘trustee’. The experimenter tripled this amount. After tripling the money, the trustee was given the opportunity to back-transfer some of this money to the investor. The investor could indicate a desired level of the back-transfer before he transferred the money to the trustee. In the incentive-condition the investor even had the option to impose a fine if the trustee would send a back-transfer that was less than the desired amount. Instead of imposing a fine the investor could also choose to decline the use of the fine. The decision of imposing or declining the fine was known to the trustee. In the trust-condition the investor could not make use of incentives. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) found that generous initial transfers by investors were reciprocated with greater back-transfers by trustees. However, the use of the fine reduced the return transfers, while renouncing the fine in the incentive-condition increased back-transfers. This means that sanctions revealing selfish or greedy intentions destroy altruistic cooperation almost completely (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). In another experiment by Fehr and Schmidt (2007), principals could choose between offering a bonus contract or a combination contract (which was a combination of the bonus contract with a fine) to the employee. What they found was that agents perceive that principals who are less fair are more likely to choose a combined contract and are less likely to pay the announced bonus. Furthermore the effect of effort on the bonus paid is twice as large in the pure bonus condition compared to the combined contract condition. The positive response to the principal’s renunciation of the fine option can be seen as a categorical effect. The threat of a fine led to diminishment of the trustee’s reciprocity. 3. State-dependent preferences: incentives may suggest permissible behavior The experiments that will be described here, differ from the experiments mentioned above in the way that here incentives are implemented exogenously by the experimenter. This means that incentives do not provide any information about the beliefs or intentions of other experimental subjects. In a lot of situations people look for clues of appropriate behavior. These are often provided by incentives. These framing effects have been investigated in many studies. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat and Smith (1994; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that by making a game sound more competitive after relabeling it, generosity and fair-minded behavior in the participants were diminished. In some other studies (Ellingsen, Johannesson, Munkhammar, Mollerstrom, 2008; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) the framing effect even appeared to have changed subjects’ beliefs about the actions of others. Framing effects can also be induced in other ways than simply renaming the experiment. Providing an incentive may already provide a powerful frame for the decision maker. In an experiment of Schotter, Weiss and Zapater (1996) subjects played an Ultimatum Game experiment in which player 1 is given an endowment and asked to propose a part of this endowment to player 2. Player 2 can either accept or reject this division. If he accepts, the proposed division is implemented. However, if he rejects both players receive nothing. Schotter et al (1996) found that if a market-like competition was included in the game, that is, subjects with lower earnings would be excluded from the second round in the game, player 1 proposed less generous divisions to player 2. Furthermore, lower offers were accepted by player 2. The authors interpreted these results as that implementing market-like competition â€Å"offers justifications for actions that in isolation would be unjustifiable† (p. 38). Thus, providing incentives in the form of a competition can lead to moral disengagement. The framing effects of incentives can occur in cases of government-imposed incentives as well. An example comes from an experiment from Cardenas, Stranlund and Willis (2000) where they studied the effects of external regulatory control of environmental quality. Participants were asked to choose how much time they would spend collecting firewood from a forest, while being aware that this activity has a negative effect on local water quality. Two treatments were considered to examine whether external control may crowd out group-oriented behavior. All subjects played eight initial rounds of the game without any treatment, that is, without being able to communicate with each other and without external regulation. After the initial rounds, one subset of groups played additional rounds in which they were able to communicate. The other subset of groups was confronted with a government-imposed regulation. The regulation also involved the possibility of imposing a fine to subjects that would withdraw too much of the firewood. Although standard economic theory predicted that the regulation would increase group-oriented behavior, this wasn’t the case. When subjects were able to communicate they made way more efficient decisions. However, regulatory external control caused subjects to make decisions that were closer to their self-interest. This means that the fine, although it was insufficient to enforce the social optimum, extinguished the subjects’ ethical aptitudes. 4. State-dependent preferences: incentives may compromise intrinsic motives and self-determination A third reason why social preferences may be state dependent is because providing incentives may lead to motivational crowding out. As Bowles (2008) put it: â€Å"where people derive pleasure from an action per se in the absence of other rewards, the introduction of explicit incentives may ‘overjustify’ the activity and reduce the individual’s sense of autonomy† (p. 607). According to Deci (1975; as cited in Bowles, 2008) the underlying psychological mechanism appears to be a desire for â€Å"feelings of competence and self-determination that are associated with intrinsically motivated behavior† (p. 1607). There is a large body of literature on the psychology of intrinsic motivations going back to the early work of Festinger (1957; as cited in ThOgersen, 2003) and his cognitive dissonance theory. In the past decades a lot of experiments have been done to test the crowding out of intrinsic motivation. One of these studies comes from Gneezy Rustichini (2000b) who tested the effects of monetary incentives on student performance. 180 students were asked to answer 50 questions of an IQ test. They were all paid 60 NIS (New Israeli Shekel) for their participation in the experiment. The students were divided into 4 different groups, which were all corresponding to 4 different treatments. The students in the first treatment group were only asked to answer as many questions as possible. The students in the second group got an extra payment of 10 cents of a NIS per question that they answered correctly. Subjects in the third group were promised 1 NIS, and subjects in the fourth group 3 NIS per question that they answered correctly. The average number of questions correctly was approximately 28 in the first group and declined to 23 in the second group. Furthermore, the number increased to 34 in both the third and the fourth group. The differences in performance were significant. In a second experiment Gneezy Rustichini (2000b) tested the effect of incentives on volunteer work performed by high school children. 180 children were divided into three groups. The subjects in the first group constituted the control group and they were only given a speech about the importance of volunteer work. The second group was given a speech as well, but was also promised to receive 1 per cent of the total amount of donations collected. The third group was promised 10 per cent of the amount collected. The average amount collected was highest in the first group and lowest in the second group. The average amount that was collected by the third group was higher than that of the second group but not as high of the amount that was collected in the first group. Also these results were significant. It appears to indicate that the effect of incentives can be detrimental, at least for small amounts. In another experiment, Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) tested the idea that control aversion based on the self-determination motive is the reason that incentives reduce performance. They used a principal-agent game where agents could choose a level of production that was beneficial for the principal, but costly for themselves. If the agent chose to produce nothing, he would get a maximal pay-off. Before the agent’s decision the principal could decide to leave the choice f production level completely to the agent or to impose a certain lower bound on the agent’s production level. The experimenter varied the bounds across the treatments and the principal could only choose to impose it or not. Results showed that when the principal imposed the bound, the agents chose a lower production level than when the principal didn’t impose a bound. The ‘untrusting’ principals earned half of the profits of those who did trust the agents and thus didn’t impose a bound. In post-surveys, the agents indicated that imposing the lower bound was perceived as a signal of distrust. The results of this experiment suggest that the desire for self-determination and control aversion are not the only effects of imposing the bound. Imposing this minimum was informative for the agents about what the principals’ beliefs were regarding the agents: the principals who imposed the bounds had lower expectations of the agents. Thus, the results in the experiment of Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) seem to be the result of both negative information about the principal (or incentive designer) as well as the result of self-determination. 5. Crowding in Although a lot of experiments show that providing incentives has a negative effect on social preferences, there is also some evidence that crowding in can occur, that is, social preferences and incentives enhance the effect on each other. This might happen when an incentive provides good news about the principal’s type or intentions, for example when he offers the agent a reward rather than a fine. It is also seen in experiments where the incentive designers are peers in a public goods game who pay to punish free riders in order to sustain cooperative behavior (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). The phenomenon of crowding in is interesting since it indicates how policies could be implemented optimally and how incentives and social preferences could become complements rather than substitutes (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Besides that, it appears that crowding in happens often in Public Goods games and Common Pool Resources games, which display the same characteristics as public policy settings. Below I’ll give an example of an experiment in which crowding in was found. Fehr and Gachter (2000) conducted a public good experiment with and without the opportunity to punish. In the no-punishment treatment the dominant strategy is complete free-riding. In the punishment treatment free-riders could be punished by their altruistic peers, since it was costly for them to punish. Therefore, if there were only selfish individuals, as assumed in economic theory, there wouldn’t be a difference between the two treatments. However, in the no-punishment treatment the contributions of the players were substantially lower than in the punishment treatment. This suggests that powerful motives drive the punishments of free-riders. Furthermore there was evidence that the more free-riders deviated from cooperation, the more they were being punished. There are several mechanisms that can explain the effect of crowding in. In the first place when a peer imposes a fine on a free-rider, this may activate a feeling of shame. Barr (2001; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that just a verbal message of disapproval already can have a positive effect on the free riders’ contributions. A second mechanism that appears to be at work it that nobody wants to be the cooperator while all others are defecting. Shinada and Yamagishi (2007, as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that students cooperated more in a public goods experiment when they were assured that defecting free-riders would be punished. They just didn’t want to be exploited by defectors. A third mechanism underlying crowding in was consistent with the findings of an experiment by Vertova and Galbiati (2010, as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). They found that when a stated obligation was introduced, this produced a larger effect when it was accompanied with a small monetary incentive, rather than with a big incentive or than when no incentives were offered. The authors interpreted this phenomenon as that the salience of the stated obligation is enhanced by large explicit incentives. The latter phenomenon was also found in Ireland, where a small tax was imposed on plastic grocery bags (Rosenthal, 2008; as cited in Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). After two weeks there was a 94% decline in the use of these bags. This result can be explained by the fact that the introduction of the tax was preceded by a large publicity campaign. Thus, the incentive was implemented jointly with a message of social obligation and it seems that it served as a reminder of the importance of one’s civic duty. Implications for policy Many policies are based on the self-interest hypothesis that predicts that all individuals are self-regarding. However, as we have seen social preferences play an important role as well when it comes down to behavior. This would mean that a lot of current policies are non-optimal. Therefore a big challenge is facing the mechanism designer: how to design optimal fines, taxes or subsidies when the individual’s responses depend on his preferences which in turn are determined by the incentive imposed? In most experiments the effects of incentives were studies and afterwards the mechanisms were identified that could explain the results. However, one of the problems that the designer is facing is that he must determine beforehand how incentives will affect behavior. Based on the experiments that have been done, several guidelines can be drawn. The first is that when crowding out is found, social preferences and incentives are substitutes. This means that a negative effect of incentives is less likely to be found when the social preferences are minimal. In contrast, when social preferences are prevalent among a society, it may be more convenient to reduce the use of incentives. Also, policies that are implemented in order to enhance social preferences will be more effective when incentives are little used. The second stems from Titmuss’s claim that if the crowding out effect is so strong that the incentive has an opposite effect than intended, incentives should be used less. However, in many cases the effectiveness of incentives is not reversed, but blunted and then the implications for the optimal use of incentive isn’t that obvious (Bowles Hwang, 2008). How Bowles Hwang (2008) state it: â€Å"the reduced effectiveness of the incentive associated with crowding out would entail a larger incentive for a planner designing a subsidy to ensure compliance with a quantitative target† (p. 4). Present evidence is insufficient in providing enough guidelines to the policy maker who wants to know ex ante what the effects are of the incentives that he considers to implement (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). What we do know is that the same incentives imposed by individuals who have no personal benefit but only want to promote pro-social behavior (as in the experiment of Fehr Gachter, 2000) are more likely to increase contributions than when imposed by an untrusting principal (Fehr Rockenbach, 2003). Furthermore it seems to be important to let the agent understand that the desired change in behavior would be socially beneficial rather than that the incentive is perceived as a threat to her autonomy or reflecting badly on the designer’s intentions (Bowles Polania-Reyes, 2012). Conclusion The self-interest hypothesis assumes that individuals are only motivated by their own material self-interest. This assumption is used in the design of many policies. However, in the past decades a lot of experiments have shown that other-regarding social preferences rather than self-regarding preferences play a role in behavior. We have seen that some mechanisms can induce pro-socially oriented individuals to behave as they are selfish. On the other hand, there are also examples of experiments in which mechanisms induce self-interested individuals to behave at a more pro-social level. Thus, incentives can lead to both crowding out and crowding in phenomena. Whereas negative information about the principal and the over-justification effect may lead to crowding out of intrinsic motivation to contribute to a good, altruistic punishment by peers who do not benefit personally is more likely to increase contributions. Furthermore it seems important to make individuals aware of their civic duty, as was shown in Ireland where a small tax was imposed on plastic bags. Regarding to public policy, we have seen that small differences in institutional design can lead to many different outcomes. This imposes a big challenge on the policy designer who has to know ex ante what the effects of the incentive that he is considering to implement will be. When social preferences are not present, incentives may have a positive effect, predicted by economic theory. However, in areas where social preferences do play a role, the use of monetary incentives needs to be reconsidered.

Tic Tac Toe Game Computer Science Essay

Tic Tac Toe Game Computer Science Essay Most of the research nowadays is focused towards problems that deal with complexity or are influenced by some kind of random events. Interesting about these problems is that if they are deterministic, then a solution is expected to exist, at least a theoretical one. These problems are often inspired by games, such as mathematical games (ex. Tic-Tac-Toe, Chess). On the other hand the point of randomness involved in these problems increases the difficulty of prediction on the possible solution, or in some situations outcome. This is thy, there are certain methods of operations devised, that in turn give some supplementary information to a decision maker. In most of the cases, the probability distribution of an even which took place randomly, it is possible to be affected by prior events. These games are often played by at least 2 players (or many), out of which the one is called an opponent. The decisions at each step are made by the last move of the opponent. The operations research in these games is called game theory. The vital Tic-Tac-Toe game consists of two players, X and O, who take turns marking the spaces in a 3ÃÆ'-3 grid (Crowley, 1993; Gardner, 1998). The game usually begins with the X player, and the player who will manage to place three respective marks (in any direction, i.e. in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row) wins the game. This basic version of the game is rather simple, what allows the game to be used as a useful tool in combinatorial game theory, as well as a branch of artificial intelligence that deals with the searching of game trees (Beck, 2008). Using game theory there are few approaches that can be undertaken: The games solution is resulted by dominance when the game has only 1 rational strategy for each player Minimax strategies decide a stable solution useful if the opponent makes the wrong play Minimax strategies do not decide a stable solution using a probability distribution Even though, game theory researches are made on the possible playing strategies, they might not be employed in real life when playing a game, because: There might be too many strategies to enumerate (this number is simply too large to be estimated). Players are not always rational. There might be more than two players. Real-life games are not zero-sum games. This project deals with developing a Tic-Tac-Toe to be used on a mobile device. The following chapter discusses the Aims and Objectives of the game. Chapter 3 talks about a background research on this game, starting with a review on existing Tic-Tac-Toe games, which in turn leads to discussion about the existing models of this game and the proposed model of this work. Finally, Chapter 3 concludes with a technology research concentrated towards Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition (J2ME). Chapters 4 and 5 describe the system requirement analysis and design on this work, and chapters 6, 7, and 8 include explanation on the implementation, testing and evaluation. And finally, chapter 9 concludes this work. 2. Aim and Objectives The aim of this project is to develop a Tic-Tac-Toe game for mobile device. The game is supposed to consist of two parts, one a single player game (a player against a system), and the other a multi-player game (two players on their mobile devices, playing against each other). In order to accomplish these, the following objectives were defined. Single player game The player should play Tic-Tac-Toe game on his mobile device. The player should have option to edit his name. The player will start the game of choosing his symbol as X or O. If player 1 selected X then O has to be automatically allotted to the mobile device as a second player, and vice versa. The player has an option to choose the small game grid out of 4 small tic-tac-toe games. If player X marked horizontally or vertically or diagonally of his symbol X in a row, then player X won that small match. Finally, which player won the maximum small games will be declared as winner of the tic-tac-toe game. Multi-player game Using Bluetooth as communication channel the two players should play Tic-Tac-Toe game from different mobiles. Players should have options to edit his name. Once both players connected together, then first player will start the game of choosing his symbol as X or O. If player 1 selected X then O has to be automatically allotted to player 2. Then main game grid has to display in both mobiles. Player2 have option to choose the small game grid out of 4 small tic-tac-toe games. After grid selection both players will play tic-tac-toe game in that small grid. If player X marked horizontally or vertically or diagonally of his symbol X in a row, then player X won that small match. That small grid is marked with X and Player1 awarded 1 point, screen should zoom out and have to display whole main game grid and now player who won the previous game will have the choice to choose on which grid have to be select to play remaining game. This process will be repeated until the whole Four (4) small games grids marked with X, or O, or T. Finally which player won the maximum small games will be declared as winner of the tic-tac-toe game. then game ends. 3. Background Research In this section the Tic-Tac-Toe game will be discussed in details. At the outset, the basic rules of the game are going to be covered. Then, there will be a review on existing Tic-Tac-Toe games, which in turn will lead to discussion about the existing models of this game and the proposed model of this work. Finally, this section is going to be concluded with a technology research concentrated towards Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition (J2ME). 3.1 Basic Rules of Tic-Tac-Toe game The basic Tic-Tac-Toe game consists of two players, X and O, who take turns marking the spaces in a 3ÃÆ'-3 grid (Crowley, 1993; Gardner, 1998). The game usually starts with the X player, and the player who will manage to place three respective marks wins the game. The marks can be placed in any direction, i.e. in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row. This basic version of the game is rather simple and very often leads to draw. This simplicity allows the game to be used as a useful tool in combinatorial game theory, as well as a branch of artificial intelligence that deals with the searching of game trees (Beck, 2008). The Roman Empire is known to have established the beginnings of the earliest known variant of tic-tac-toe. It originated around the first century BC (Crowley, 1993). At that time, the game was called Terni Lapilli. Instead of having any number of pieces, each player only had three. The game was played by moving them around to empty spaces to keep playing. However, according to Claudia Zaslavskys book, the game Tic Tac Toe is originating from ancient Egypt (Zaslavsky, 1982). Chess and Tic-Tac-Toe are one of the most famous games to which the moves are not left to chances, rather than pure mathematics and logical reasoning. In these games, a player wins by achieving a winning configuration first, like for instance: checkmate in chess, and 3-in-a-row in a basic Tic-Tac-Toe game in 33 board (Gardner, 1998). Thus, the question which can be posed at this point is: How a player can achieve a winning configuration first? Even though there isnt a general theorem to answer this question, there might be a well-known strategy stealing argument that can give a partial answer about when a player can achieve a winning configuration first (Beck, 2008). In order to find a winning strategy, in theory all the paths could be explored. However, in practice this is not easy because the total number of strategies can be calculated a double exponential function of the size of the board. For example, a 3-dimensional 5ÃÆ'-5ÃÆ'-5 version of Tic-Tac-Toe, has about 3125 positions. This is because each one of the 53 cells has 3 options: Marked by the first player, Marked by the second player, or Unmarked. Thus the backtracking on a graph of 3125 vertices takes at least 3125 steps. This is the main reason that this 3-dimensional 5ÃÆ'-5ÃÆ'-5 version of Tic-Tac-Toe remains unsolved up to date. Moreover, only two explicit winning strategies are known from in the whole class of nÃÆ'-nÃÆ'- ·  ·  ·ÃƒÆ'-n = nd Tic-Tac-Toe games. This is the 33 version and it is characterized with an easy winning strategy, and the 43 version that in turn has an extremely complicated winning strategy. In order to play a perfect tic-tac-toe game, i.e. a win or a draw, the player can play given they move consistent with the uppermost possible moves. This is presented in the following table (Crowley, 1993): Win If the player has two in a row, play the third to get three in a row. Block If the opponent has two in a row, play the third to block them. Fork Create an opportunity where you can win in two ways. Block opponents fork Option 1: Create two in a row to force the opponent into defending, as long as it doesnt result in them creating a fork or winning. For example, if X has a corner, O has the center, and X has the opposite corner as well, O must not play a corner in order to win. (Playing a corner in this scenario creates a fork for X to win.) Option 2: If there is a configuration where the opponent can fork, block that fork. Center Play the center. Opposite corner If the opponent is in the corner, play the opposite corner. Empty corner Play in a corner square. Empty side Play in a middle square on any of the 4 sides. Initially, the player that starts first gets the X and has 3 probable positions to mark in his turn. Even though it seems that there are 9 possible positions, as there are 9 squares in the grid, by rotating the board, this is not the case. It can be observed that: Every corner mark is tactically equal to every other corner mark, and Every edge mark is tactically equal to every other edge mark. There are therefore only three possible first marks: corner, edge, or center. The first player could win (or make a draw) from any of these starting marks. It can be also observed that playing a corner would give the opponent the smallest choice of squares. This is a nice strategy as could be played to avoid losing (Zaslavsky, 1982) . The second player can be identified as O and this player must respond to Xs opening mark. However, this should be done in such a way as to avoid Player X to win. It can be stated that Player O must always respond with (Zaslavsky, 1982): To a corner opening with a center mark, To a center opening with a corner mark and To an edge opening either with a center mark, a corner mark next to the X, or an edge mark opposite the X. Any different play would allow X to compel a win. After every next turn of player X, the player O should follow the above list. This way the player O can achieve a draw (or a win if the player X makes a weak play). 3.2 Existing Tic-Tac-Toe games As many other games like: three mens morris, nine mens morris, pente, gomoku, Qubic, Connect Four, Quarto and Gobblet, Tic-Tac-Toe also has the same goal, i.e. a player wins if he is the first one to get n-in-a-row. Basically, if a generalization is to be provided, it can be concluded that all the different formations of Tic-Tac-Toe can be represented as nd-games, which are accordingly played on a d-dimensional boards with edge n (Zaslavsky, 1982). As it was discussed in the previous section as well, the original Tic-Tac-Toe game is actually a 32-game. There are many variations, discussed as follows (Patashnik, 1980; Gardner, 1998; Beck, 2008). A slightly different version of a Tic-Tac-Toe game is the 33-game, played on a 3x3x3 board (Patashnik, 1980). It can be noted that this game gives good opportunities to the player that plays first, so he could achieve an easy win by playing at the center with his first move. Similarly, playing on a 4x4x4 board also gives the first payer better chances for wining. More complex version of a Tic-Tac-Toe game is playing it on a board with higher dimensional space. 4 dimensional, i.e. 3ÃÆ'-3ÃÆ'-3ÃÆ'-3 board is one of the most commonly played Tic-Tac-Toe (Patashnik, 1980). In this version there are 2 possible aims. One of them is to position elements through all of the board, thus the player that has more rows of 3 totally than the other one is the winner of the game. And the other strategy is to include 4 players, in which case the winner is the payer that will get a row of 3 first. Another version is the misà ¨re tic-tac-toe game. It is played according to its conventional rules, such as in this variation 33 game would be a draw, whereas the winner is the player that will get n in a row (Berlekamp, 1982). Quite a new game is the Tic Tac Tactic variation of tic-tac-toe (Berlekamp, 1982). This game is played on a 3 dimensional curved board, and the here each player tries to roll a ball at least half the way, as it would then drop on a grid that has 9 positions (33 grid). This way the players should make a row of 3 in order to gain a ball. The winner is the player that will have won the first 5 balls. In order to roll their balls precisely, they could use a device that helps into changing a balls trajectory. Yet another version is the nine board tic-tac-toe. In this game, there are in essence 9 boards, arranged as 33 grids, and the first payer can start on any of them by his choice (Gardner, 1998). The following moves are supposed to be places on the board chosen by the first player. Once this board gets full and there is no more space left, the next move can be again on any of the boards left, by the choice of the player. The winner is the one that will achieve 3 in a row. However, having 9 boards gives the game yet another spirit than the usual tic-tac-toe game, as the players can have an opening, middle and end of their game. Similar to the nine board tic-tac-toe game is the super tic-tac-toe game (Beck, 2008). The difference in this variation is that this game does not end once a player makes 3 in a row in one of the 9 boards. As an alternative, the position of that board is marked on a new 33 grid, and the winner is the one that will make 3 in row there. Tic-Tac-Chess is an interesting combination of games, as it involved playing a chess game, as well as a tic-tac-toe game at the same time (Beck, 2008). In this variation, once a player captures a piece from the challenger on the chess game, makes a move on the tic-tac-toe game (even if the challenger has not placed anything on the tic-tac-toe game yet). And of course, the winner is the player that will make 3 in a row on the tic-tac-toe game first. A game that in essence is an isomorphic to a tic-tac-toe game, even though it seems as a completely different game, is described as follows (Beck, 2008). Basically, there are 2 players that should say a number between 1 and 9, without repeating the previously said numbers. The winner is the player that will first make a sum of 15. This game is isomorphic to a tic-tac-toe, because if those numbers are to be placed on a 33 magic grid, then it will be exactly as playing a tic-tac-toe game, because a straight line is formed only if the sum of the numbers is 15. This information is mostly useful in programming variations of a tic-tac-toe game. Another different variation again employs numbers from 1 to 9 (Gardner, 1998). These are to be placed on a 33 grid, but must be held with an order of precedence defined by the players. Then the players play a tic-tac-toe game, filling the grid by the precedence defined beforehand. Check Lines is a very old variation of tic-tac-toe game, invented in the 1970s by Tri-ang Toys Games. In this game the board is actually any geometrical pattern that consists of 12 lines. There are 11 holes in total, distributed in a way that each line has 3 holes. At this point, each player is given 5 coins, and each player on their turn should place a coin on the board. The winner is the one that will have first completed 2 lines. Because the players have only 5 coins, this means that they have to complete intersecting lines. If none of the players have won after placing their 5 coins, then they will continue playing by replacing the position of the coins, on the remaining spaces, with the rule that it must be done only on an adjacent hole. Very similar game to the tic-tac-toe game is the Toss Across game. Here, the players are given bags with beans and they are throwing them on a big board for marking the squares. Star Tic Tac Toe is another popular variation of tic-tac-toe. This game is played with checkers like movable pieces. It has a 33 board, thus a player has 3 pieces accordingly. The participants keep on replacing pieces into the spaces which are left empty in the board, until one the players wins; this actually adds some more dynamism in the game. Moreover, the players have supplementary star shaped pieces, which can be swapped. Similar category of games as the previous bullet, are the: Mojo, Mojo Too and Mojo tic-tac-toe games. In these variation the payers also pieces and pawn(s) onto empty positions until there is a winner. Moreover, there are many shows based on the tic-tac-toe game, as well: Hollywood Squares is a show with 9 celebrities, which fill the cells of the tic-tac-toe grid. Tic-Tac-Dough is a show on which the players put symbols up on the board. This is achieved by answering queries in a variety of categories. In Beat the Teacher competitors respond to questions to win a turn, again on a tic-tac-toe grid. On The Price Is Right, there is a pricing game called Secret X, in which players must estimate prices to win Xes, in order to place them on a blank board. They must position the Xes as to provide speculation of the location on the secret X. This is in turn hidden in the middle line of the board, forming a tic-tac-toe line across. The fictional game Dni game of Gemedet, has an aim to place 6 balls in a row to a 9x9x9 grid (Gardner, 1998). The fictional game Squid-Tac-Toad, has an aim to place 4 or 5 balls in a row to a 44 or 55 grid, accordingly (Gardner, 1998). A more simplistic variation of this game is having the rules as of the Y formations to count as a win. This is rather simple, because all the scenarios basically forming some kind of a Y configuration. Quantum tic tac toe is yet another variation in which the participants are positioning a quantum superposition of numbers on a tic tac toe board (Gardner, 1998). A larger grid (for example 1010) tic-tac-toe games also exist. In a 1010 grid the winner should place 5 in a row. The more the grids there are on a board, the larger complexity of the game is. Another similar game named Go-moku, originating from Vietnam, also has the strategy for a player to get 5 in a row in order to win the game (Gardner, 1998). The players put Xs and Os, but in order to try blocking each other, in this variation they should also try to create changes for wining. Another difference is that the board has no limit, thus the game is played until there is a winner. Three Mens Morris and Nine Mens Morris are also variations, in which there is a limiting on the number of pieces in order for a move to be allowed (Gardner, 1998). Finally, the last variation of the tic-tac-toe game, employs the words: eat, an, laf, it, line, if, lot, on and foe. In this game, the winner is the one that will select 3 words that start with the same letter. If the game was places on a tic-tac-toe grid, it would mean 3 words in order to form a line (three in a row line). 3.3 Proposed model There are quite a few algorithms hat can be used for creating the Tic-Tac-Toes game strategy. The most popular ones are the semantic algorithms and the lexical algorithms. For this project, a lexical algorithm was utilized. The model of the tic-tac-toe game described in this work contains 2 different game strategies. Basically, the one strategy is the Single Player game where a player plays against a system. The other strategy involves Multiple Player environment, and it is being played by a player versus another player. In order to analyze this game, a decision tree might be used. Moreover, for the analyzing part it should be assumed that both the players in the Multiple Player environment, and the single player in the Single Player game, are in essence experienced. This means that the result of a game can be foreseen after the first move from each participant (again assuming that there are no mistakes). Let us represent with 1 if the player that has the X wins and with -1 if the player that has the O wins. The following figure represents the decision tree after the first move from each participant. As it was already discussed in section 3.1 Basic Rules of Tic-Tac-Toe game, the tic-tac-toe game is symmetric and therefore it is sufficient to consider only the squares 1, 2 and 3 for the first player (see the figure below). The rest of the moves are symmetric and will be presented. So, following this reasoning, the first player has the positions 1, 2 and 3 available, and the second player has the remai ning two positions. The figure above presents an expansion, so called an extensive form. It demonstrates that even in the simplest scenario the decision tree can be quite large. For example, if the first two moves were to be presented, this would be impossible to be demonstrated on a single page. Similarly to this discussion, the strategic form of the game can be presented by a different model, i.e. as a matrix. In order to demonstrate this approach, it should be assumed that the players choose one strategy and they strictly follow it when their turn comes. Of course, each strategy should represent all the paths of action and in every possible situation. At the beginning, let us assume that there is a strategy that the first player uses for their first move, and another strategy for the first move of the second player. This logic would create some rules like the following (Zaslavsky, 1982): For the first player: select one of the nine squares on the game board. For the second player: Select one of the nine squares on the game board. If the first player already uses the selected square, then à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ put an O in square 3, 5, 7, or 9 if an X is in square 1 (center) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ put an O in cell 1 if an X is in cell j. These rules are examples of complete strategies, and these can be selected by the payers before the beginning of the game, and thus followed with their first moves. The strategic form of a tic-tac-toe game is presented on the figure below. It should be noted that the entries in the table below are in essence the values of the game. They hold values for every possible selection of strategies. Each tic-tac-toe game that can be actually presented in an extensive form would have an equivalent strategic form similar to the one shown in the table presented above. Moreover, this table is also equivalent to the matrix established previously. The payoff matrix in cooperation with the descriptions of the strategies comprises the model for the two-person tic-tac-toe game. 3.4 Comparison of Proposed model with Existing Models The semantic algorithm is yet another approach towards the tic-tac-toe game. The semantic algorithm is in essence a learning algorithm, and it might be structured in the following way. It might have as initial information the ability to recognizing the 3 states of a game: lost, won or a draw. The algorithm in this case would play the X, and it will play against another algorithm, i.e. the O. As soon as a game is finishes, the information if the game was won or lost is stored. Moreover, the moves are presented with the smaller letters x and o accordingly. A possible structure of stored information could be the following line: x5 o3 x9 o4 x1 won. The first move is always randomly selected. So, given that the algorithm played 7 (x7), and the opponent played 6 (o6), the algorithm will search for previous games that are most similar to x7 o6. If such a case is found, then the following rules apply: If the game found was a win, than the algorithm will try to reproduce the move. If the position is not available, it will play randomly. If the game found was a loss, the algorithm will try to correct the move, by not placing an element in the same position as in the lost game. This is repeated until there is a winner. Moreover, if a game end with a draw, it is not saved in the database. Comparing this algorithm with a lexical algorithm such as our proposed model, it might be noted that the semantic algorithm usually plays very badly at the begging. But, after a certain number of games, the learning curve of the algorithm becomes better. On the other hand, our proposed model behaves well during all the stages of the game. 3.5 Technology Research (j2me) Being quite different from other programming languages, Java does both compiling and interpreting when it comes to process code. As it can be seen from the photo above, the source code (i.e. the .java files) is initially translated by the compiler. This gives an output of an intermediate language, called Java bytecode (i.e. the .class files). The bytecode is then ready to be executed (or in other words, interpreted) within a particular virtual processor, known as the JVM (Java Virtual Machine) (Hayun, 2009; Knudsen, 2008). This is in essence a simulated processor that executes all the bytecode commands. The Java Virtual Machine is the basic components that give to Java the feature to compatibility. This is simply because it represents a reliable layer between bytecode and the concrete machine instructions, translated at runtime. Over the years, the Java language has undergone many changes and development. J2SE (Java 2 Standard Edition) had its first edition targeting GUIs, applets, and other basic and rather simple applications. Recently, the language was extended with the Java suite known as J2EE (Java 2 Enterprise Edition). This edition is based for server side development, and includes tools for: database access, messaging, content rendering, inter-process communications, and transaction control (Hayun, 2009; Li, 2005). J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition) came into existence as to cover the needs for applications targeting mobile devices. As it can be seen from this short overview, there are versions of Java to suit different environments: from the enterprise development tools intended for use in servers, to the micro systems. An important thing to note at this point is that the separation between platforms is not just unconditional (Knudsen, 2008). Many times these are not a simple line than can be drawn. In ord er to demonstrate this, it might be explained that Java 2 Micro Edition development sometimes requires the use of Java 2 Enterprise Edition and Java 2 Micro Edition. This is the case with multiplayer games for instance, so and Java 2 Micro Edition is used for the client side, but Java 2 Enterprise Edition is used for the server side of the application/game. Moreover, different Java editions target different hardware configurations. Similarly, there are 3 virtual machines to be used for the different environments (Li, 2005). For example, Hotspot VM is a default virtual machine suitable for a executing the full-scale edition of JavaHotspot. JavaHotspot is a newer type of virtual machine competent of vigorously optimizing a great deal of executed code (called as hotspots) during the runtime (Li, 2005). Other versions of virtual machine are the Compact Virtual Machine (CVM) and Kilobyte Virtual Machine (KVM). These are in essence smaller virtual machine implementations. They are targete d to run within the restrictions of the limited resources found on the micro devices (these will be discussed later in this section, as well). The requirement of having another version (like the Java 2 Micro Edition) for the mobile devices came because these devices do not have sufficient recourses to run Java 2 Standard Edition, since J2SE was clearly way excessively large to fit on even the bigger micro devices. However, the question was imposed initially was which features should be left out from the J2SE, so to be minimized in a smaller edition. Also, having great diversity of different devices, it would not have been a nice decision to restrict all the J2ME applications to the lowest compatible hardware configuration (Li, 2005; Kochnev, 2003). Moreover, this solution would not have been practical as well, because it would incorrectly neglect the capabilities of the higher end devices. The final solution is comprehended through a mixture of J2ME configurations and profiles (Krikke, 2005). It represented a revised Java architecture, which actually offers for the leaving out of parts of the platform, at the same time as a ddition to device and category precise components. Along these lines, the configuration would identify the abilities of a Java platform intended for use on a sequence of analogous hardware. Possible components that can be removed are the following (Kochnev, 2003; Lefevre, 2005): Java language mechanism smallest amount hardware necessities, such as the memory, screen size, and processor power for the family of devices integrated Java libraries By utilizing this approach, there are actually 2 preset configurations for mobile devices: one for somewhat restricted devices such as PDAs and Set-Top-Boxes (for instance the digital TV receivers), and another one for devices such as pagers and mobile phones. These two configurations are (Kochnev, 2003; Krikke, 2005; Lefevre, 2005): CDC (Connected Device Configuration) CLDC (Connected, Limited Device Configuration) All of these configurations are to be reviewed as follows. On the other hand, a good example of java profiles is the UI (User Interface) for mobile phones. For example, the J2ME configuration CLDC that wraps this type of device, keeps out the typical Java UI libraries (AWT and Swing). The devices do not have the ability of presenting anything derived from these libraries in any case. This is due to the fact that their screens are just too small. Thus, there is no point to slaughtering valued space on them. The solution was to generate an innovative User Interface, fitting to the exact necessities of the poor mobiles LCD display. The consequential LCD UI is built-in in the CLDC profile. This targets MIDs (Mobile Information Devices), for this reason the name is MIDP. The CDC is built for bigger devices such as digital TV set-top-boxes and PDAs. These are devices characteristically with numerous space of memory. The CDC is the bigger brother of the J2ME configurations. It encloses a single profile (the Foundation profile) as well as a high performance virtual machine (known as the Compact Virtual Machine CVM). This Java language implementation, as well as the API, practically has all the influence of J2SE. Unluckily, the CDC is not accessible on the platform for the most micro-game players (the mobile phones). The CLDC is especially targeted to micro devices, like mobile phones. It fundamentally defines a standard, which in turn is used by all the device manufact

Presentation of World War II in Band of Brothers :: essays research papers

Band of Brothers is a fascinating show that captures moments lived by soldiers during World War II. It specifically relates to the history of soldiers called Easy Company. They are faced with numerous challenges and tragedies everyday. They stuck together and helped each other out, while also trying to survive themselves. The problem was that it was very difficult to keep sane, when you are literally watching people die left and right, even worse you have limited supplies. To be honest I never thought much of WWII until I saw Band of Brothers. They did a good job of really showing, the horrific side of the war. Even though the war needed to happen it was not at all an easy thing for these soldiers. I was aware that many deaths occurred, but I had never realized the way the soldiers died. My perception of the war changed dramatically. I felt the heartbreak of the soldier who watched others die. I can only imagine the broken lives of the families back home that found out they lost their loved ?one. The conditions, in which the soldiers fought for our country, were unbearable. It was disturbing to see them dig holes and literally sleep and live in them. They had no real shelter. The soldiers did not even have gloves, or even a good warm heavy coat. One of the soldiers in the movie had to keep his blood flowing by pinching his hand to make it bleed because he had no gloves. The part that made me realize how much they needed supplies was when the soldier was using his helmet on top of the fire to heat things up. Because of the lack of clothing soldiers were unable to fight because of things like trench foot, which had no cure but amputation. The graphic points of the film were what really got me. It was insane how within minutes you could be dead. The sad part was that most of the soldiers who died could have lived if they had the proper medical supplies, attention, and space. The soldiers had to pick up their injured bloody friends and slowly watch them die on their way to the nurse. The worst part is that they knew they had no chance once they got to the nurse. I felt sympathy for the nurses because these soldiers? lives were in their hands.

Case Study on Dave Barry :: History

Case Study on Dave Barry Much can be learned about Dave Barry's personal life by reading his books, which are compilations of the articles that he has written. His articles can be seen every Sunday in the Daily Break section of The Virginian-Pilot. He is a comedy writer who often points out annoying aspects of everyday life and makes fun of them. All of the following excerpts have been taken from the book entitled, "Dave Barry is not making this up" (unless otherwise noted). He uses a lot of parentheses to add asides, which further explain what he has written. Another technique in his writing that I have noticed is personification, sometimes in the form of quotes. All of these techniques are used in the following excerpts from an article entitled, "Food For Thought." Another problem is that our ant is starting to sag, both in the front (or, in entomological terms, the "prognosis") and in the rear (or "butt"). It doesn't look like one of those alert, businesslike, "can-do" ants that you see striding briskly around. It looks depressed, like an ant that has just been informed that all 86,932 members of its immediate family were crushed while attempting to lift a Tootsie Roll. But the ants that showed up at our experiment were total morons. You'd watch one, and it would sprint up to a Cocoa Krispie, and then stop suddenly, as if saying: "Yikes! Compared with me, this Cocoa Krispie is the size of a Buick!" then it would sprint off in a random direction. Sometimes it would sprint back; sometimes it would sprint to another Cocoa Krispie and act surprised again. but it never seemed to do anything. There were thousands of ants behaving this way, and every single time two of them met, they'd both stop and exchange "high-fives" with their antennas, along with, I assume, some kind of ant pleasantries ("Hi Bob! "No, I'm Bill!" "Sorry! You look just like Bob!"). This was repeated millions of times. I watched these ants for two days, and they accomplished nothing. It was exactly like highway construction. It wouldn't have surprised me if some ants started waving orange flags to direct other insects around the area. A technique found often in Barry's articles are graphic indicators, especially italics. The above excerpt shows how he uses them to indicate exaggeration ("This was repeated millions of times") and also to emphasize words ("†¦accomplished nothing).

The Accident - Original Writing Essay -- Papers

The Accident - Original Writing I can hear the boisterous wind charging through the icy caverns of the station. My polished, black leather shoes pad against the escalator stairs, as I rub at the chafing collar of my shirt, aware of the irritating dampness. Everything seems to be going against me. Morality has a vice-like grip on my stiff shoulders, and it is beginning to yank me back. Gripping the cold handle of my briefcase offers some reassurance, but remembering the contents sends an ominous shiver up my spine. They did not say the first job would be so hard. The grime, embedded in the rugged tiles, adds to the dingy, depressing surroundings. A crumpled crisp packet flits across the surface, as another tube roars past. It is as if I have just entered the minotaur's den, and luckily escaped the clutches of the savage beast. I begin to walk more briskly, as an unpleasant stench wafts from the nearby toilets. Have they never heard of such a thing as disinfectant or cleaners? Inefficiency is a rapidly spreading disease, and it needs a cure soon. Failure to succeed, especially in my line of work, has inconceivable consequences. The relative quiet is broken by the monotonous drone of the loudspeaker dictating various platforms, and a raucous group of youths. I glower at them as they began ridiculing a humble tramp who is coughing vigorously, blatantly distressed. My moral arrow tells me I should go and prevent this, however the objectives involved include avoiding all human contact. The one on the left hand side, a stocky teenager with a crew cut and a hideous earring, begins making offensive gestures with his free hand, the oth... ... enveloped the tube. Muffled groans broke the silence. The sprucely dressed man with polished hair flicked on his lighter, and activated his phone beam. Beside him was a balding man, blood oozing from a deep gash in his chest. The man with the lighter sat up abruptly, a concerned look on his face. He hastily removed his jacket, and applied it to the wound, in an attempt to prevent the blood loss. The balding man grunted, croaking for assistance. A creased picture caught the eye of the suavely dressed man. It was beside the ravaged hand of the balding man. He frowned, recognising the picture's familiarity. On the back, scribbled in red writing, was the word target. Before acting, he reached for the weighty briefcase that was crushing his foot. He began to click it open. The balding man's left eye fluttered open.

Benefits of Nonverbal Communication Essay

Certain things are not conveyed by words or verbal means because individuals are not simply skilled to deliver or are not trained to explain in appropriate means or symbols. An officer can definitely learn from an understanding of nonverbal communication as he/she will be able to gain the nuances of an offender or parolee’s responses whether these are in consonance with the gaze in his eyes, the confidence of gait, or the studied looks that he may portray during the sessions that might transpire with the officer (Messina, Training in Nonverbal Communication). An officer who has spent a lengthy time studying people in this kind of profession, the difficulty usually lies in studying those who are mentally deranged, or the offenders who are so evil that they are capable to manipulate even the most intelligent officers, when possible. Their eyes convey differently where their talk or smiles carry them to a different level (Carrick, 2006). Art in any form conveys the reality that a human’s world is enriched by the kind of communication inherent in being human. Even one’s attire may speak a million things about the person or his intentions. People communicate both through verbal and nonverbal modes. Though we mistake verbal communication is clearer, yet often the reverse is truer (Messina, Training in Nonverbal Communication). People frequently understand our gestures more than our words. Hence, the adage â€Å"Actions speak louder than words. † Nonverbal communication is taught and performed frequently on an almost instinctive level. People get attention by using nonverbal signals and every so often the attention is usually due to an unpleasant manner by which these signals were conveyed. Most people who employ body language utilize such behavior to conceal the self for fear of rejection. The result would mean no real deep connections and deters other people to develop such deep and beneficial relationships. Many of those who realize their need try to unlearn years of covering up and attempt to make themselves known to avoid (Messina, Training in Nonverbal Communication). Every individual has inadequate stock of body language and utilizes the same manners to show specific emotionality. Body language and/or gestures, and a host of physical and psychological signals take place in clusters. This means that when a particular body language is used, it may not mean much as when it is used alongside many other forms of communication (Messina, Training in Nonverbal Communication). The officer then must continually make use of every opportunity as a learning experience as people are dynamic and continually changing. Reference: Carrick, Damien. 31 January 2006. The Law Report. Parole Boards. Messina, James D. Training in Nonverbal Communication. Accessed from Analysis of Cultural Communication and Proxemics http://www. unl. edu/casetudy/456/traci. htm